STUDY: The Need to Contribute During Adolescence

The Connecting Adolescent Brain

This fact sheet gives an overview of adolescent brain development and explains how access to resources, opportunities, and meaningful relationships during adolescence can build connections within our brains and with the world around us that support us into adulthood.

Brain development during adolescence is fundamentally a story of connections.

Around age 9 or 10, hormonal changes kick off a period of intense learning and development, when brain cells form, strengthen, and streamline connections in response to our experiences more rapidly than in any period of life after early childhood.

Activity increases especially in the brain networks that propel us to explore the world, learn from our mistakes, and connect with others in new ways. In turn, these new experiences prompt our brain cells to connect with other neurons in ways that help us adapt to new events and new information. These neural connections become stronger the more we use them, while unused connections are pruned away, helping the brain become more efficient at acquiring and mastering new skills and new ways of thinking.

This brain-building learning happens through direct experiences in our environments and interactive, responsive relationships—with our families and peers, in our classrooms and neighborhoods, in community activities, and even online. The resources, opportunities, and experiences we as adults provide in and out of school can help young people’s brains build the extensive networks of connections that will manage the complex knowledge and behaviors needed to navigate adulthood.

Learning by Exploring the World Around Us

One of the networks that changes significantly with the increase in hormones and dopamine at the beginning of puberty is the “reward system” in our brain. Heightened activity in this system increases the feeling of reward we get from exploring the world, taking risks, and learning from the results.

Meanwhile, the network of brain regions that make up the “social brain” also changes during adolescence. These changes help us tune into social and emotional cues, like facial expressions or social rejection and approval, and increase our desire to earn respect and contribute to others. It also enables us to learn the nuances of changing social contexts in ways that help prepare us for adult relationships.

The prefrontal cortex (the region of the brain that orchestrates critical thinking and behavioral control) undergoes its most rapid period of development during adolescence. It builds on many other systems within the brain to manage our responses to the flood of new information and intensifying emotions. Engaging with other people and our environment and learning from our successes and our mistakes, known as “action-based learning,” helps shape the prefrontal cortex by strengthening the connections within it and between it and other brain networks. We learn through repeated practice—which includes trying and sometimes failing—what is adaptive and appropriate in different situations and how to guide our behavior accordingly, in ways that equip us to pursue new forward-looking goals.

When adults provide youth with opportunities to try new things, to practice navigating emotions, and to learn from failures along the way, it helps build the brain connections that we all need to grow into healthy, thriving adults.

Policies, Experiences, and Mindsets Shape the Connecting Brain

Although we can continue to learn new skills and behaviors as adults, the adaptability of the brain during adolescence means that these connections are much more likely to form quickly in response to experiences. The extent of these changes make the adolescent years a critical window when investments in the right policies and programs for youth can shape long-term positive development.

Likewise, this makes the adolescent years a time when negative experiences including racism, other forms of discrimination, poverty, or abuse can create steeper hills for young people to climb toward a healthy adulthood. When adults ensure that all young people, especially those who have experienced earlier adversity, have what they need along their journey, they can build the skills and capacities they need to thrive as adults. This includes opportunities to explore and take healthy risks, to connect with and contribute to those around us, to make decisions and learn from the outcomes, to develop a healthy sense of identity, and to rely on support from parents or other caring adults.

Understanding how and why the brain develops during adolescence lets us provide the support young people need to build healthy connections—in their world and within their brains—that will help our youth and our communities thrive.

Thumbnail Image for Research Roundup June 2024

Summer 2024 Research Roundup

Research Roundup | Education | Mental Health | Adversity, Bias, & Discrimination

This roundup provides an overview of recent research about adolescent development that highlights the importance of support from parents and peers, the effects of neighborhood environments, the impact of racial and ethnic discrimination on sleep, and the trajectories of mental health and gender identity in youth.

In this issue of our quarterly Research Roundup, we provide an overview of some recent research about adolescent development that highlights the importance of support from parents and peers, the effects of neighborhood environments, the impact of racial and ethnic discrimination on sleep, and the trajectories of mental health and gender identity in youth.

You can suggest research articles for future roundups by emailing cda@psych.ucla.edu or sign up to receive the quarterly research roundup in your inbox.

Parent support can help protect against negative effects of neighborhood disadvantage (April 2024)
Neighborhood Safety Affects Mental Health of Adolescents with Heightened Emotional Sensitivity (June 2024)
The Social Determinants of Emotional and Behavioral Problems in Adolescents Experiencing Early Puberty (April 2024)
Racial and Ethnic Discrimination Can Result in Health Disparities by Impacting Adolescent Sleep (April 2024)
Trajectories of Gender Identity and Depressive Symptoms in Youths (May 2024)

Neighborhood disadvantage and parenting predict longitudinal clustering of uncinate fasciculus microstructural integrity and clinical symptomatology in adolescents

(Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, April 2024)

In this study, Jessica Buthmann and colleagues explored how neighborhood conditions and support from parents impact brain development and mental health in adolescence. They analyzed data from 224 adolescents over the ages of 9 to 18, looking for common patterns in trajectories of brain development–specifically related to white matter, nerve fibers in the brain (named for the white color of myelin, the fatty substance that insulates the fibers) that help the brain learn and function–and anxiety symptoms over time. They identified three distinct groups: a “low-risk” cluster (strong white matter pathways and low anxiety), a “high-risk” cluster (weaker white matter pathways and high anxiety), and a “resilient” cluster (weaker white matter pathways and low anxiety). Adolescents living in disadvantaged neighborhoods–characterized by qualities including higher rates of pollution, poverty, unemployment, and health problems–were more likely to be in the high-risk cluster if they reported low maternal warmth; however, if they reported high maternal warmth (comfort and understanding from their mother), they were more likely to be in the resilient cluster. This suggests that supportive and warm parental influence can help youth positively cope with and help protect against the negative impacts of challenging neighborhood conditions on adolescent mental health.

Why this is important: This study highlights the critical role of both family and community environments in shaping adolescent brain development and mental health.

Longitudinal associations between neighborhood safety and adolescent adjustment: The moderating role of affective neural sensitivity

(Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, June 2024)

In this study, Tianying Cai and colleagues explored how changes in neighborhood safety affect adolescent mental health, and how the sensitivity of adolescents’ brains in response to emotional information may influence this association. Using a large dataset of early adolescents from the ABCD study) measured at 9 or 10 years old and then at two other timepoints one year apart, researchers found that improvements in neighborhood safety were linked to fewer behavioral and emotional problems in adolescents over time. Interestingly, adolescents who showed higher brain activity in their right insula and ACC, areas of the brain that process emotional input, in response to positive emotional stimuli (in this case, images of happy facial expressions) were more affected by changes in neighborhood safety: adolescents with more sensitivity experienced greater mental health benefits when their neighborhood became safer but also suffered more when safety declined, while those with less sensitivity were less affected by these changes. These results suggest that neighborhood safety is crucial for adolescent development and that individual differences in brain function can influence how much neighborhood conditions impact mental health.

Why this is important: This research underscores the role of neighborhood safety for adolescent mental health, suggesting that improving neighborhood safety could be particularly beneficial for adolescents with heightened emotional sensitivity.

The Social Determinants of Emotional and Behavioral Problems in Adolescents Experiencing Early Puberty

(Journal of Adolescent Health, April 2024)

In this study, Nandita Vijayakumar and colleagues examined how adolescents’ social environments influence associations between pubertal timing (when a young person undergoes puberty compared to their peers) and emotional and behavioral problems. In a large sample of 10- to 13-year-olds across the United States (using data from the ABCD study), boys and girls who started puberty earlier compared to their peers who also experienced more negative social influences (such as delinquent peers or high family conflict) exhibited more rule-breaking problems, and girls who started puberty earlier and experienced negative social influences showed more depressive symptoms. Importantly, early puberty did not have negative effects on mental health for adolescents who experienced more positive social influences (more prosocial peers, parental acceptance, and school engagement).Why this is important: These findings suggest that strong social support from family, peers, and the community is essential to support the behavioral and emotional wellbeing of adolescents who experience early puberty, highlighting the importance of fostering positive social environments to enhance mental health outcomes amongst these young people.

Developmental links between ethnic and racial discrimination and sleep

(Child Development Perspectives, April 2024)

In this review article, Tiffany Yip and colleagues discuss the connection between ethnic and racial discrimination and sleep disturbances in adolescents and young adults. They highlight how stress from discrimination can lead to sleep issues, which in turn exacerbate health disparities over time. Research consistently shows that discrimination is associated with poorer sleep quality and shorter sleep duration in adolescence. Additionally, sleep disturbances often explain why discrimination leads to negative health outcomes such as mental health problems. Discrimination and sleep can also interact, with poor sleep amplifying and good sleep protecting against the negative health effects of discrimination. Importantly, the authors argue that sleep interventions tailored to adolescents, such as school-based sleep education and cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia, could be effective strategies for improving sleep quality and helping to reduce the health impacts of discrimination.

Why this is important: This review underscores the pervasive harm of ethnic and racial discrimination in adolescence as well as the critical need to improve young people’s sleep quality to help reduce health inequities.

Trajectories of Gender Identity and Depressive Symptoms in Youths

(JAMA Network Open, May 2024)

During adolescence, we form our sense of who we are, which includes our gender identity—our inner sense of being a man, woman, or some other feeling of gender such as nonbinary. In this longitudinal study led by André Gonzales Real and colleagues, researchers tracked gender identity and depressive symptoms reported over four years in 336 sexual and gender minority youth aged 15 to 21 living in two large U.S. cities. The researchers found that changes in gender identity were not uncommon–one in five participants reported changes in their gender identity over time, and a third of those changed gender identities more than once. Youth who transitioned to a transgender identity started with higher levels of depression compared to those who did not transition from their sex assigned at birth, but once these youths’ exposure to violence based on their sexual and gender identity was accounted for, there was no statistical difference between the groups. Youth who made more changes in their gender identity did not get more depressed after a change in gender identity.

Why this is important: This study highlights adolescence as a critical period for developing gender identity and underscores the importance of supporting the mental health of gender-diverse youth by eliminating violence and discrimination due to their LGBT identity as they navigate the social landscape of adolescence.

Spring 2023 Research Roundup

Research Roundup | Education | Out-of-School Time

In our first quarterly Research Roundup, we review recent research that highlights the importance of exploration, the impact of school and neighborhood environments, charitable giving, and the positive influence of peers during our adolescent years.

We are excited to introduce our first quarterly Research Roundup–an overview of some of the recent research that highlights the important learning and growth of our adolescent years, and how adults can support positive development.

You can suggest research articles for future roundups by emailing cda@psych.ucla.edu or sign up to receive the quarterly research roundup in your inbox.

Real-world exploration increases throughout adolescence and is related to positive affect, risk-taking, and social connectedness.
The school environment is associated with brain connectivity and mental health in adolescents.
Neighborhood safety is associated with adolescent cognitive and brain function.
Changes in brain activity related to rewards for others is associated with increased charitable giving in older adolescents compared to younger adolescents.
The presence of a peer leads to more prosocial behavior in adolescents by enhancing sensitivity to others’ outcomes.

Exploration & Risk Taking

Oh, the places you’ll go! Real-world exploration is beneficial for adolescent well-being.

Natalie Saragosa-Harris and co-authors examined adolescent risk taking by using geolocation tracking to record the amount of exploration–visiting new places or taking new routes–in daily movement patterns of about 60 adolescents and adults (ages 13 to 27) over a three-month period in New York City. Older adolescents, ages 18 to 21, were most likely to explore, meaning that their movements around the city varied the most over the course of the day. Both adolescents and adults felt better on days when they explored more, and more exploration was linked to larger social networks. Interestingly, adolescents also showed a link between real-world exploration and self-reported risk-taking behaviors. (Psychological Science, September 2022)

Why this is important
This is the first study to link real-world exploration to positive well-being and risk-taking in adolescents, highlighting how important it is for teenagers to have opportunities to explore and try new things.

Environments & Brain Development

Got school on the brain: Favorable school environments associated with brain functioning in early adolescence.

Divyangana Rakesh and colleagues explored associations between how adolescents rated their school environment—based on factors such as availability of extracurricular activities, how supported and safe they feel, and their relationships with teachers—and brain development in more than 10,000 early adolescents, ages 9 to 10. School environment ratings were related to connectivity in higher-brain networks that are important for cognition and attention. The patterns of connectivity within these networks were associated with adolescent mental health. Factors including extracurricular activities and support of teachers showed the strongest associations with brain connectivity and positive mental health. (Biological Psychiatry, January 2023)

Why this is important
This study highlights the importance of positive school environments (including having supportive teachers and available extracurricular programs) in adolescence by showing how a supportive school climate affects connectivity of brain networks, which in turn can contribute to positive mental health in young adolescents.

The importance of neighborhood safety for brain and cognitive function in adolescents

May Conley and colleagues examined the link between neighborhood threats, cognitive performance, and brain activity in more than 10,000 9- and 10-year-olds across the United States. Results showed that youth who reported high neighborhood threat or who reported high threat across the contexts of their neighborhood, family, and school performed worse on an emotional-cognitive task. (The task involved quickly indicating whether a neutral, happy, or fearful face matched a previously viewed image.)

In youth who reported high neighborhood threat, their low performance on the task was linked to lower activity in regions of the brain’s “executive network” that are important for cognition and self-control. This may be because in unsafe environments, the brain is working to assess potential threats, which makes it harder to perform well on cognitive tasks or engage in self-control. Results also suggested that the combination of neighborhood threats and less activity in the brain’s executive network contributes to risk for externalizing problems (negative feelings directed outward, such as aggression and delinquent behavior) in adolescence. (Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, January 2023)

Why this is important
This study highlights the importance of ensuring safe neighborhoods to support healthy cognitive development and positive behaviors.

Contribution

Choosing charity: Reward-related neural response and age-related increase in charitable donations in adolescence

Jochem Spaans and colleagues examined changes by age in donations to charity and in brain activity related to getting rewards for oneself or for a charity in a group of 10- to 22-year-olds. Participants played a digital game in which they saw gains for themselves or for a charity, and also decided whether to give to the charity or gain rewards for themselves. Older adolescents chose to donate to charity more often than younger adolescents and reported less enjoyment when receiving rewards overall. Across all participants, activity in the brain regions involved in processing rewards was higher when receiving rewards for self than for charity. However, this difference decreased with age–older participants’ brain activity was similar when receiving rewards for themselves as for charity, and was linked to their increase in charitable donations. (Journal of Research on Adolescence, November 2022)

Why this is important
This study highlights the increase in charitable behavior as adolescents get older.

Putting the “pro” back in “prosocial”: The presence of a peer increases prosocial behavior in adolescents

In this study, Nicolette Sullivan and colleagues examined how 58 high school juniors and seniors responded to a digital game involving rewards that could benefit themselves, their friend, or both equally. When the adolescents were alone, they tended to allocate more money to themselves in the decision-making game. However, when their peer, a close friend, was present, adolescents were more likely to provide more rewards for that peer. Adolescents also responded more quickly to outcomes that benefited their friend when that friend was with them. This suggests that adolescents are sensitive to outcomes that benefit others in the presence of a peer, and this effect is linked to more prosocial behavior. (Scientific Reports, August 2022)

Why this is important
This study suggests that during adolescence, the presence of a peer can promote positive, helping behaviors.