Visit UCLA CDA

Summer 2024 Research Roundup

Summer 2024 Research Roundup

In this issue of our quarterly Research Roundup, we provide an overview of some recent research about adolescent development that highlights the importance of support from parents and peers, the effects of neighborhood environments, the impact of racial and ethnic discrimination on sleep, and the trajectories of mental health and gender identity in youth.

You can suggest research articles for future roundups by emailing meghanforder@ucla.edu or sign up to receive the quarterly research roundup in your inbox.

In this Roundup

  • Parent support can help protect against negative effects of neighborhood disadvantage (April 2024)
  • Neighborhood Safety Affects Mental Health of Adolescents with Heightened Emotional Sensitivity (June 2024)
  • The Social Determinants of Emotional and Behavioral Problems in Adolescents Experiencing Early Puberty (April 2024)
  • Racial and Ethnic Discrimination Can Result in Health Disparities by Impacting Adolescent Sleep (April 2024)
  • ​Trajectories of Gender Identity and Depressive Symptoms in Youths (May 2024)

Research

Neighborhood disadvantage and parenting predict longitudinal clustering of uncinate fasciculus microstructural integrity and clinical symptomatology in adolescents

(Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, April 2024)

In this study, Jessica Buthmann and colleagues explored how neighborhood conditions and support from parents impact brain development and mental health in adolescence. They analyzed data from 224 adolescents over the ages of 9 to 18, looking for common patterns in trajectories of brain development–specifically related to white matter, nerve fibers in the brain (named for the white color of myelin, the fatty substance that insulates the fibers) that help the brain learn and function–and anxiety symptoms over time. They identified three distinct groups: a “low-risk” cluster (strong white matter pathways and low anxiety), a “high-risk” cluster (weaker white matter pathways and high anxiety), and a “resilient” cluster (weaker white matter pathways and low anxiety). Adolescents living in disadvantaged neighborhoods–characterized by qualities including higher rates of pollution, poverty, unemployment, and health problems–were more likely to be in the high-risk cluster if they reported low maternal warmth; however, if they reported high maternal warmth (comfort and understanding from their mother), they were more likely to be in the resilient cluster. This suggests that supportive and warm parental influence can help youth positively cope with and help protect against the negative impacts of challenging neighborhood conditions on adolescent mental health.

Why this is important: This study highlights the critical role of both family and community environments in shaping adolescent brain development and mental health.

Longitudinal associations between neighborhood safety and adolescent adjustment: The moderating role of affective neural sensitivity

(Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, June 2024)

In this study, Tianying Cai and colleagues explored how changes in neighborhood safety affect adolescent mental health, and how the sensitivity of adolescents’ brains in response to emotional information may influence this association. Using a large dataset of early adolescents from the ABCD study) measured at 9 or 10 years old and then at two other timepoints one year apart, researchers found that improvements in neighborhood safety were linked to fewer behavioral and emotional problems in adolescents over time. Interestingly, adolescents who showed higher brain activity in their right insula and ACC, areas of the brain that process emotional input, in response to positive emotional stimuli (in this case, images of happy facial expressions) were more affected by changes in neighborhood safety: adolescents with more sensitivity experienced greater mental health benefits when their neighborhood became safer but also suffered more when safety declined, while those with less sensitivity were less affected by these changes. These results suggest that neighborhood safety is crucial for adolescent development and that individual differences in brain function can influence how much neighborhood conditions impact mental health.

Why this is important: This research underscores the role of neighborhood safety for adolescent mental health, suggesting that improving neighborhood safety could be particularly beneficial for adolescents with heightened emotional sensitivity.

The Social Determinants of Emotional and Behavioral Problems in Adolescents Experiencing Early Puberty

(Journal of Adolescent Health, April 2024)

In this study, Nandita Vijayakumar and colleagues examined how adolescents’ social environments influence associations between pubertal timing (when a young person undergoes puberty compared to their peers) and emotional and behavioral problems. In a large sample of 10- to 13-year-olds across the United States (using data from the ABCD study), boys and girls who started puberty earlier compared to their peers who also experienced more negative social influences (such as delinquent peers or high family conflict) exhibited more rule-breaking problems, and girls who started puberty earlier and experienced negative social influences showed more depressive symptoms. Importantly, early puberty did not have negative effects on mental health for adolescents who experienced more positive social influences (more prosocial peers, parental acceptance, and school engagement).Why this is important: These findings suggest that strong social support from family, peers, and the community is essential to support the behavioral and emotional wellbeing of adolescents who experience early puberty, highlighting the importance of fostering positive social environments to enhance mental health outcomes amongst these young people.

Developmental links between ethnic and racial discrimination and sleep

(Child Development Perspectives, April 2024)

In this review article, Tiffany Yip and colleagues discuss the connection between ethnic and racial discrimination and sleep disturbances in adolescents and young adults. They highlight how stress from discrimination can lead to sleep issues, which in turn exacerbate health disparities over time. Research consistently shows that discrimination is associated with poorer sleep quality and shorter sleep duration in adolescence. Additionally, sleep disturbances often explain why discrimination leads to negative health outcomes such as mental health problems. Discrimination and sleep can also interact, with poor sleep amplifying and good sleep protecting against the negative health effects of discrimination. Importantly, the authors argue that sleep interventions tailored to adolescents, such as school-based sleep education and cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia, could be effective strategies for improving sleep quality and helping to reduce the health impacts of discrimination.

Why this is important: This review underscores the pervasive harm of ethnic and racial discrimination in adolescence as well as the critical need to improve young people’s sleep quality to help reduce health inequities.

Trajectories of Gender Identity and Depressive Symptoms in Youths

(JAMA Network Open, May 2024)

During adolescence, we form our sense of who we are, which includes our gender identity—our inner sense of being a man, woman, or some other feeling of gender such as nonbinary. In this longitudinal study led by André Gonzales Real and colleagues, researchers tracked gender identity and depressive symptoms reported over four years in 336 sexual and gender minority youth aged 15 to 21 living in two large U.S. cities. The researchers found that changes in gender identity were not uncommon–one in five participants reported changes in their gender identity over time, and a third of those changed gender identities more than once. Youth who transitioned to a transgender identity started with higher levels of depression compared to those who did not transition from their sex assigned at birth, but once these youths’ exposure to violence based on their sexual and gender identity was accounted for, there was no statistical difference between the groups. Youth who made more changes in their gender identity did not get more depressed after a change in gender identity.

Why this is important: This study highlights adolescence as a critical period for developing gender identity and underscores the importance of supporting the mental health of gender-diverse youth by eliminating violence and discrimination due to their LGBT identity as they navigate the social landscape of adolescence.

Additional Resources

The Connecting Adolescent Brain

Fact Sheet

This fact sheet gives an overview of adolescent brain development and explains how access to resources, opportunities, and meaningful relationships during adolescence can build connections within our brains and with the world around us that support us into adulthood.

Brain development during adolescence is fundamentally a story of connections.

Around age 9 or 10, hormonal changes kick off a period of intense learning and development, when brain cells form, strengthen, and streamline connections in response to our experiences more rapidly than in any period of life after early childhood.

Activity increases especially in the brain networks that propel us to explore the world, learn from our mistakes, and connect with others in new ways. In turn, these new experiences prompt our brain cells to connect with other neurons in ways that help us adapt to new events and new information. These neural connections become stronger the more we use them, while unused connections are pruned away, helping the brain become more efficient at acquiring and mastering new skills and new ways of thinking.

This brain-building learning happens through direct experiences in our environments and interactive, responsive relationships—with our families and peers, in our classrooms and neighborhoods, in community activities, and even online. The resources, opportunities, and experiences we as adults provide in and out of school can help young people’s brains build the extensive networks of connections that will manage the complex knowledge and behaviors needed to navigate adulthood.

Learning by Exploring the World Around Us

One of the networks that changes significantly with the increase in hormones and dopamine at the beginning of puberty is the “reward system” in our brain. Heightened activity in this system increases the feeling of reward we get from exploring the world, taking risks, and learning from the results.

Meanwhile, the network of brain regions that make up the “social brain” also changes during adolescence. These changes help us tune into social and emotional cues, like facial expressions or social rejection and approval, and increase our desire to earn respect and contribute to others. It also enables us to learn the nuances of changing social contexts in ways that help prepare us for adult relationships.

The prefrontal cortex (the region of the brain that orchestrates critical thinking and behavioral control) undergoes its most rapid period of development during adolescence. It builds on many other systems within the brain to manage our responses to the flood of new information and intensifying emotions. Engaging with other people and our environment and learning from our successes and our mistakes, known as “action-based learning,” helps shape the prefrontal cortex by strengthening the connections within it and between it and other brain networks. We learn through repeated practice—which includes trying and sometimes failing—what is adaptive and appropriate in different situations and how to guide our behavior accordingly, in ways that equip us to pursue new forward-looking goals.

When adults provide youth with opportunities to try new things, to practice navigating emotions, and to learn from failures along the way, it helps build the brain connections that we all need to grow into healthy, thriving adults.

Policies, Experiences, and Mindsets Shape the Connecting Brain

Although we can continue to learn new skills and behaviors as adults, the adaptability of the brain during adolescence means that these connections are much more likely to form quickly in response to experiences. The extent of these changes make the adolescent years a critical window when investments in the right policies and programs for youth can shape long-term positive development.

Likewise, this makes the adolescent years a time when negative experiences including racism, other forms of discrimination, poverty, or abuse can create steeper hills for young people to climb toward a healthy adulthood. When adults ensure that all young people, especially those who have experienced earlier adversity, have what they need along their journey, they can build the skills and capacities they need to thrive as adults. This includes opportunities to explore and take healthy risks, to connect with and contribute to those around us, to make decisions and learn from the outcomes, to develop a healthy sense of identity, and to rely on support from parents or other caring adults.

Understanding how and why the brain develops during adolescence lets us provide the support young people need to build healthy connections—in their world and within their brains—that will help our youth and our communities thrive.

Adolescents Need Supportive Environments Where They Can Develop Values, Goals, and A Positive Sense of Identity

Fact sheet | Education | Community Engagement | Out-of-School Time | Adversity, Bias, & Discrimination

This fact sheet shares research about adolescent development that helps explain why adolescence is such an important window for building a sense of identity and how adults can support the process.

Policies and programs that support adolescents to explore and discover their values, goals, and a positive sense of identity lead to healthier, more connected communities.

Adolescence is an important period for exploring who we are, what we value, and who we want to be. Over the course of our adolescent years, we are developing a more integrated, stable sense of our identity that we carry with us into adulthood.

Healthy development in adolescence involves creating a positive sense of self and belonging based on our values and aspirations. This process can be challenging for youth facing racism, sexism, or other forms of bias and discrimination, which too often cause young people to be defined by others in ways that are grounded in negative or otherwise limiting stereotypes.

Research into development helps explain why adolescence is such an important window for building a sense of identity and how adults can support the process.

As our cognitive abilities mature, we’re able to think in more complex, abstract ways that help us engage in self-reflection on a deeper level. Regions in our brain associated with perspective taking, decision making, self-regulation, and values become more active when we’re evaluating ourselves in relation to others, especially in social contexts. In addition, we become more sensitive to social stimuli, increasing the effects of feedback from our family, peers, communities, and media on shaping our identity.

Our sense of identity is more than just who we are—it also affects what we do. Throughout adolescence, our sense of identity increasingly influences the decisions we make. Research suggests that we value behaviors more when they fit with our sense of identity. For example, if we feel strongly about our identity as a good student, we may choose to skip a party the night before a big test.

Healthy development involves creating a positive sense of self and belonging that includes our sense of racial, ethnic, and gender identity. Positive feelings about our racial and ethnic identity are associated with psychological well-being and even serve as a buffer against external stressors. For youth of color, positive identity formation supports emotional adjustment, academic outcomes, and health. For sexual minority youth, a positive sense of identity is protective against depression and makes LGBTQ+ youth more likely to form supportive friendships with other sexual minority youth.,

Our increased motivation to explore and take risks during adolescence allows us to try out different interests, “selves,” and roles within our peer groups, families, and community. Inequities resulting from poverty as well as discrimination within systems and by adult “gatekeepers” can limit opportunities to safely explore and reduce options related to school and work.

During adolescence, we need agency to explore our place in the world, to set our own goals, and to determine how we want to be seen. We also need leeway to change these over time. The challenge for youth from historically stigmatized groups is that often they are being defined by others in ways that are grounded in negative stereotypes.

➢ Create equitable opportunities for youth to explore roles and activities that can help them determine what they value and who they want to become. These could occur throughout the contexts in which youth engage every day, such as at home with family, in the community, at vocational and career training programs, on sports teams, and in school or extended learning programs. Learn more about one example of an afterschool program that focuses on boosting leadership skills and embracing cultural identity, Youth Empowerment Solutions.

➢ Ensure access to images and messages that affirm and support pride in racial, gender, or other identities and provide space for young people to explore their identities.

➢ Develop opportunities for young people to forge identities as group or community members. Substantial research has connected extracurricular activities with positive youth development by contributing to young people’s sense of identity as a member of a group or community.

Healthy Sleep During Adolescence Is Essential for Mental and Physical Well-Being

Science Spotlight | Education | Digital Tech | Foster Care | Juvenile Justice

This spotlight summarizes research about the importance of sleep for young people and describes how policies and programs can support this critical adolescent need.

Adolescence is a period of remarkable growth and opportunity. The cognitive, physical, and psychological changes that take place during these years both help and motivate us to learn from the environments, experiences, and relationships that surround us in ways that can profoundly shape our trajectories and prepare us to succeed in adulthood. Extensive research shows that healthy development, learning, and positive mental health during adolescence all require healthy, restful sleep. Most adolescents do not get the sleep they need, yet sleep is often overlooked in conversations about adolescent well-being.

Following is a summary of research about the importance of sleep for young people and how policies and programs can support this critical adolescent need.

​Amount

The National Sleep Foundation’s recommendations decrease with age throughout adolescence:

  • 9 to 11 hours for 6- to 13-year-olds
  • 8 to 10 hours for 14- to 17-year-olds
  • 7 to 9 hours for 18- to 25-year-olds

    • ​Quality

    It’s not just time in bed that matters, but the quality of sleep—the number and duration of nighttime awakenings—an adolescent is getting. Using a comfortable pillow and bedding, minimizing light in the room, and reducing noise-emitting distractions like text messages and social media alerts can all improve sleep quality.

    ​Consistency

    Although it may seem logical to pack in as many hours of sleep as possible on the weekends, “catching up” on Saturdays and Sundays by sleeping until noon creates its own problems. No one is expected to go to bed at exactly the same time, but wild swings from night to night make it difficult for the body to set its circadian rhythm in a predictable fashion. Such severe schedule changes result in a “chronically jet-lagged state” that adolescents’ circadian system cannot adjust to.

    ​Mental Health

    The most significant evidence on the importance of sleep for adolescents relates to mental health. Quality sleep can reduce depressive symptoms, even for adolescents facing family-related stressful events such as job loss or the death of a family member. Insufficient sleep is associated with depression and anxiety and increases emotional reactivity and impulsivity.

    Most alarming is the relationship between lack of sleep and suicide. Compared to high school students who reported sleeping eight hours per night, those who slept less than six hours were three times as likely to consider or attempt suicide, and four times as likely to attempt suicide resulting in treatment.

    ​Physical Health

    Insufficient or inconsistent amounts of sleep across the week during adolescence are associated with short- and long-term effects on health. Sleep deprivation has also been linked to obesity and diabetes as well as impaired immune function.

    ​Brain Function

    The amount of sleep an adolescent gets, the quality of that sleep, and the consistency of nightly sleep all appear to directly affect brain functioning in regions crucial for self-control, learning, emotional reactivity, and reward processing.

    ​Biological Changes

    Changes in the adolescent brain associated with puberty and maturation push adolescents’ circadian rhythm toward more of a “night owl” preference, and slow the buildup of sleep pressure (a biological response that makes us feel sleepy and helps us fall asleep) that makes us more and more tired as the day progresses.

    Meanwhile, just as adolescent brains are shifting to a later natural bedtime anyway, they are also becoming more sensitive to external factors, such as blue lights from digital screens, that can further shift them toward later nights.

    The effect of these changes is that the late night/early morning schedule many adolescents maintain during the school year becomes increasingly unhealthy.

    ​Families

    Even as adolescents become more independent, their families still impact their sleep habits. In general, more positive family relationships are associated with longer and better quality sleep.

    Parents should know that adolescents are not too old for a bedtime. Research has shown that adolescents with parent-set bedtimes went to bed earlier (an average of 23 minutes) and got about 20 minutes more sleep per night than their peers without bedtimes. This 20-minute difference in sleep resulted in less fatigue and less trouble staying awake. The timing of the parent-set bedtime also matters. Adolescents with parent-set bedtimes of midnight or later were 24 percent more likely to suffer from depression and 20 percent more likely to have suicidal ideation than adolescents whose parents set bedtimes at 10:00 p.m. or earlier.

    ​Technology

    The effect on sleep is the most well-established negative effect of digital technology on adolescents. Electronic devices emit blue light that “tricks” the already light-sensitive adolescent brain into thinking it should be awake, alert, and ready for daylight.

    In addition, the dynamic social exchanges and judgments required from social media lead to longer times to fall asleep. Other energizing interactions such as bullying, sexting, and arguments are also more likely to happen late at night. Adolescents who spend the most time on social media have twice the risk of disturbed sleep than those who spent less time on social media.

    ​School demands

    Many middle and high schools start earlier than elementary schools. Extended travel times to school require even earlier wake-up times, which mean even less sleep.

    Early school start times are a major issue, given adolescents’ natural shift toward later sleep and wake times. Shifting school start times later has been proven to make a difference. After the Seattle School District delayed the start of their public high schools by nearly an hour, from 7:50 a.m. to 8:45 a.m., students’ daily median sleep time increased by 34 minutes a day, and grades increased 4.5 percent.

    As school and other activities begin to start earlier in middle and high school, homework and extracurricular activities also increase, pushing bedtimes later. This can create more challenges because staying up later to study actually has a negative effect on learning. Sleep is not simply rest, but an active process where learning is internalized within the brain. In fact, when a high school student sacrifices sleep to study more hours than usual, that student can end up increasing academic problems—such as struggling on an assignment or a test—the next day.

    There is no doubt that sleep is a public health issue for all adolescents. But the burden of insufficient sleep appears to weigh heavier on adolescents from racial minority groups and families of low socio-economic status. One study of 250 high school students from low- to middle-income communities showed that while insufficient sleep was a problem for most students, Black male students slept less than any other group. Ethnic and racial discrimination is also associated with shorter sleep duration and worse sleep quality, largely due to loneliness and stress.

    Students from families experiencing economic hardship may face additional obstacles to sleep, such as longer commute times to school (requiring earlier wake-up times), less “optimal” sleep contexts, and after-school jobs.

    Given the grave importance of sleep to mental and physical health and learning, the sleep deficits faced by youth who have been impacted by the effects of racial discrimination or economic hardship represent another impediment to equal opportunities for success. Sleep inequality may be a pathway through which social disparities impact health and well-being across the lifespan.

    ➢ Given that sleep is habitual, establishing healthy sleep routines and providing interventions when necessary during the early years of adolescence could be particularly impactful across the lifespan.

    ➢ Settings that are entrusted with adolescents’ residential environments–such as foster homes, juvenile justice facilities, and independent living placements for youth transitioning from systems of care into adulthood–should prioritize providing young people with conditions that promote quality sleep. Because some factors that influence sleep quality are unique to each individual–such as preferences in bedding and pillows–young people themselves should provide input on what works best for them whenever possible.

    ➢ Schools, employers, and youth-serving programs should structure schedules to help adolescents prioritize healthy sleep. This could include delaying school start times, limiting the hours that adolescents can work or drive on school nights, or avoiding early-morning or late-evening meetings or practice times.

    ➢ Technology companies should be partners in promoting healthy sleep habits in adolescence. For example, social media platforms and apps could include settings that promote better sleep such as automatic “do-not-disturb” periods or minimization of blue light at certain times of day.

    ➢ What happens at home is crucial. Fund programs that support parents’ and caregivers’ ability to identify and promote healthy sleep habits in the home, such as quiet times before bed or limitations on technology use at night.

    Contact Us

    Fill in the box below to ask a question or get more information about STEPS for Youth.