UCLA CDA Co-Executive Directors, Adriana Galván and Andrew Fuligni, spoke with PBS NewsHour’s William Brangham about why sleep is so important to youth mental health.
How Teenagers’ Lack of Sleep is Taking a Toll on Their Mental Health
How Teenagers’ Lack of Sleep is Taking a Toll on Their Mental Health
Additional Resources
This fact sheet gives an overview of adolescent brain development and explains how access to resources, opportunities, and meaningful relationships during adolescence can build connections within our brains and with the world around us that support us into adulthood.
Brain development during adolescence is fundamentally a story of connections.
Around age 9 or 10, hormonal changes kick off a period of intense learning and development, when brain cells form, strengthen, and streamline connections in response to our experiences more rapidly than in any period of life after early childhood.
Activity increases especially in the brain networks that propel us to explore the world, learn from our mistakes, and connect with others in new ways. In turn, these new experiences prompt our brain cells to connect with other neurons in ways that help us adapt to new events and new information. These neural connections become stronger the more we use them, while unused connections are pruned away, helping the brain become more efficient at acquiring and mastering new skills and new ways of thinking.
This brain-building learning happens through direct experiences in our environments and interactive, responsive relationships—with our families and peers, in our classrooms and neighborhoods, in community activities, and even online. The resources, opportunities, and experiences we as adults provide in and out of school can help young people’s brains build the extensive networks of connections that will manage the complex knowledge and behaviors needed to navigate adulthood.
Learning by Exploring the World Around Us
One of the networks that changes significantly with the increase in hormones and dopamine at the beginning of puberty is the “reward system” in our brain. Heightened activity in this system increases the feeling of reward we get from exploring the world, taking risks, and learning from the results.
Meanwhile, the network of brain regions that make up the “social brain” also changes during adolescence. These changes help us tune into social and emotional cues, like facial expressions or social rejection and approval, and increase our desire to earn respect and contribute to others. It also enables us to learn the nuances of changing social contexts in ways that help prepare us for adult relationships.
The prefrontal cortex (the region of the brain that orchestrates critical thinking and behavioral control) undergoes its most rapid period of development during adolescence. It builds on many other systems within the brain to manage our responses to the flood of new information and intensifying emotions. Engaging with other people and our environment and learning from our successes and our mistakes, known as “action-based learning,” helps shape the prefrontal cortex by strengthening the connections within it and between it and other brain networks. We learn through repeated practice—which includes trying and sometimes failing—what is adaptive and appropriate in different situations and how to guide our behavior accordingly, in ways that equip us to pursue new forward-looking goals.
When adults provide youth with opportunities to try new things, to practice navigating emotions, and to learn from failures along the way, it helps build the brain connections that we all need to grow into healthy, thriving adults.
Policies, Experiences, and Mindsets Shape the Connecting Brain
Although we can continue to learn new skills and behaviors as adults, the adaptability of the brain during adolescence means that these connections are much more likely to form quickly in response to experiences. The extent of these changes make the adolescent years a critical window when investments in the right policies and programs for youth can shape long-term positive development.
Likewise, this makes the adolescent years a time when negative experiences including racism, other forms of discrimination, poverty, or abuse can create steeper hills for young people to climb toward a healthy adulthood. When adults ensure that all young people, especially those who have experienced earlier adversity, have what they need along their journey, they can build the skills and capacities they need to thrive as adults. This includes opportunities to explore and take healthy risks, to connect with and contribute to those around us, to make decisions and learn from the outcomes, to develop a healthy sense of identity, and to rely on support from parents or other caring adults.
Understanding how and why the brain develops during adolescence lets us provide the support young people need to build healthy connections—in their world and within their brains—that will help our youth and our communities thrive.
Summer 2024 Research Roundup
Research Roundup | Education | Mental Health | Adversity, Bias, & Discrimination
This roundup provides an overview of recent research about adolescent development that highlights the importance of support from parents and peers, the effects of neighborhood environments, the impact of racial and ethnic discrimination on sleep, and the trajectories of mental health and gender identity in youth.
In this issue of our quarterly Research Roundup, we provide an overview of some recent research about adolescent development that highlights the importance of support from parents and peers, the effects of neighborhood environments, the impact of racial and ethnic discrimination on sleep, and the trajectories of mental health and gender identity in youth.
You can suggest research articles for future roundups by emailing meghanforder@ucla.edu or sign up to receive the quarterly research roundup in your inbox.
- Parent support can help protect against negative effects of neighborhood disadvantage (April 2024)
- Neighborhood Safety Affects Mental Health of Adolescents with Heightened Emotional Sensitivity (June 2024)
- The Social Determinants of Emotional and Behavioral Problems in Adolescents Experiencing Early Puberty (April 2024)
- Racial and Ethnic Discrimination Can Result in Health Disparities by Impacting Adolescent Sleep (April 2024)
- Trajectories of Gender Identity and Depressive Symptoms in Youths (May 2024)
Neighborhood disadvantage and parenting predict longitudinal clustering of uncinate fasciculus microstructural integrity and clinical symptomatology in adolescents
(Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, April 2024)
In this study, Jessica Buthmann and colleagues explored how neighborhood conditions and support from parents impact brain development and mental health in adolescence. They analyzed data from 224 adolescents over the ages of 9 to 18, looking for common patterns in trajectories of brain development–specifically related to white matter, nerve fibers in the brain (named for the white color of myelin, the fatty substance that insulates the fibers) that help the brain learn and function–and anxiety symptoms over time. They identified three distinct groups: a “low-risk” cluster (strong white matter pathways and low anxiety), a “high-risk” cluster (weaker white matter pathways and high anxiety), and a “resilient” cluster (weaker white matter pathways and low anxiety). Adolescents living in disadvantaged neighborhoods–characterized by qualities including higher rates of pollution, poverty, unemployment, and health problems–were more likely to be in the high-risk cluster if they reported low maternal warmth; however, if they reported high maternal warmth (comfort and understanding from their mother), they were more likely to be in the resilient cluster. This suggests that supportive and warm parental influence can help youth positively cope with and help protect against the negative impacts of challenging neighborhood conditions on adolescent mental health.
Why this is important: This study highlights the critical role of both family and community environments in shaping adolescent brain development and mental health.
Longitudinal associations between neighborhood safety and adolescent adjustment: The moderating role of affective neural sensitivity
(Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, June 2024)
In this study, Tianying Cai and colleagues explored how changes in neighborhood safety affect adolescent mental health, and how the sensitivity of adolescents’ brains in response to emotional information may influence this association. Using a large dataset of early adolescents from the ABCD study) measured at 9 or 10 years old and then at two other timepoints one year apart, researchers found that improvements in neighborhood safety were linked to fewer behavioral and emotional problems in adolescents over time. Interestingly, adolescents who showed higher brain activity in their right insula and ACC, areas of the brain that process emotional input, in response to positive emotional stimuli (in this case, images of happy facial expressions) were more affected by changes in neighborhood safety: adolescents with more sensitivity experienced greater mental health benefits when their neighborhood became safer but also suffered more when safety declined, while those with less sensitivity were less affected by these changes. These results suggest that neighborhood safety is crucial for adolescent development and that individual differences in brain function can influence how much neighborhood conditions impact mental health.
Why this is important: This research underscores the role of neighborhood safety for adolescent mental health, suggesting that improving neighborhood safety could be particularly beneficial for adolescents with heightened emotional sensitivity.
The Social Determinants of Emotional and Behavioral Problems in Adolescents Experiencing Early Puberty
(Journal of Adolescent Health, April 2024)
In this study, Nandita Vijayakumar and colleagues examined how adolescents’ social environments influence associations between pubertal timing (when a young person undergoes puberty compared to their peers) and emotional and behavioral problems. In a large sample of 10- to 13-year-olds across the United States (using data from the ABCD study), boys and girls who started puberty earlier compared to their peers who also experienced more negative social influences (such as delinquent peers or high family conflict) exhibited more rule-breaking problems, and girls who started puberty earlier and experienced negative social influences showed more depressive symptoms. Importantly, early puberty did not have negative effects on mental health for adolescents who experienced more positive social influences (more prosocial peers, parental acceptance, and school engagement).Why this is important: These findings suggest that strong social support from family, peers, and the community is essential to support the behavioral and emotional wellbeing of adolescents who experience early puberty, highlighting the importance of fostering positive social environments to enhance mental health outcomes amongst these young people.
Developmental links between ethnic and racial discrimination and sleep
(Child Development Perspectives, April 2024)
In this review article, Tiffany Yip and colleagues discuss the connection between ethnic and racial discrimination and sleep disturbances in adolescents and young adults. They highlight how stress from discrimination can lead to sleep issues, which in turn exacerbate health disparities over time. Research consistently shows that discrimination is associated with poorer sleep quality and shorter sleep duration in adolescence. Additionally, sleep disturbances often explain why discrimination leads to negative health outcomes such as mental health problems. Discrimination and sleep can also interact, with poor sleep amplifying and good sleep protecting against the negative health effects of discrimination. Importantly, the authors argue that sleep interventions tailored to adolescents, such as school-based sleep education and cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia, could be effective strategies for improving sleep quality and helping to reduce the health impacts of discrimination.
Why this is important: This review underscores the pervasive harm of ethnic and racial discrimination in adolescence as well as the critical need to improve young people’s sleep quality to help reduce health inequities.
Trajectories of Gender Identity and Depressive Symptoms in Youths
(JAMA Network Open, May 2024)
During adolescence, we form our sense of who we are, which includes our gender identity—our inner sense of being a man, woman, or some other feeling of gender such as nonbinary. In this longitudinal study led by André Gonzales Real and colleagues, researchers tracked gender identity and depressive symptoms reported over four years in 336 sexual and gender minority youth aged 15 to 21 living in two large U.S. cities. The researchers found that changes in gender identity were not uncommon–one in five participants reported changes in their gender identity over time, and a third of those changed gender identities more than once. Youth who transitioned to a transgender identity started with higher levels of depression compared to those who did not transition from their sex assigned at birth, but once these youths’ exposure to violence based on their sexual and gender identity was accounted for, there was no statistical difference between the groups. Youth who made more changes in their gender identity did not get more depressed after a change in gender identity.
Why this is important: This study highlights adolescence as a critical period for developing gender identity and underscores the importance of supporting the mental health of gender-diverse youth by eliminating violence and discrimination due to their LGBT identity as they navigate the social landscape of adolescence.
Real-World Practice Helps Adolescents Learn to Make Reasoned Decisions and Manage Emotions
Fact Sheet | Fact sheet | Education | Community Engagement | Mental Health | Out-of-School Time
This fact sheet highlights what research tells us about how youth build good decision-making skills and navigate challenging emotions, and highlights how adults can help in this process.
Adolescence is a time of remarkable opportunity and growth. During these years, changes to the brain networks involved in processing emotions and guiding behavior—combined with the novelty of strong emotions like falling in love—can amplify the intensity of our emotions. This makes our middle and high school years a critical window to learn to navigate emotions.
Policies and programs that support adolescents to practice making decisions and regulating their emotions in real-world settings lead to healthier, more connected communities.
Learning to make good decisions and manage strong emotions in a positive way are fundamental skills to learn in our adolescent years. Fortunately, we’re developmentally primed to tackle these areas of learning during this period.
Throughout adolescence, our cognitive and emotional abilities mature in ways that help us more deeply consider the needs and perspectives of others, think abstractly, and analyze more complex issues compared to when we’re younger. These changes prepare us to develop the skills we need to make good decisions and navigate our emotions. And like every skill, we need opportunities to practice in real-world situations and to make and learn from mistakes.
Research on adolescent development highlights the ways that youth build the necessary skills to make good decisions and navigate challenging emotions and how adults can help.
Some of the most significant changes to the brain during adolescence affect the networks involved in processing emotions and guiding behavior. The amygdala—the part of the brain involved in processing and recognizing emotion—is highly sensitive to social cues during adolescence, helping us adapt to the nuances of social contexts in ways that help prepare us for the complexities of the adult world. This increased sensitivity, combined with the fact that we’re having many intense experiences for the first time (like falling in love or going through a breakup), contribute to emotions that can be more intensely expressed compared to adults.
Our heightened sensitivity to emotions associated with peer acceptance or rejection can influence our decision making during adolescence. On the one hand, we’re more likely to make risky decisions when we’re in situations that are emotionally charged, particularly in the presence of peers, which can sometimes be unhealthy. On the other hand, our friends can also motivate us to do good and to make prosocial choices—choices intended to benefit others—like sticking up for a friend.
Development during adolescence also increases our capability to navigate emotions, plan for the future to achieve a goal, and solve problems. Throughout adolescence, we build the cognitive and emotional abilities to consider the needs and perspectives of others and to assess complex issues. Given the time and space to deliberately weigh different options, many adolescents are capable of reasoning as well as adults when making decisions.
We build our emotional regulation and decision-making skills through real-world opportunities to practice and to learn from the outcomes. Experiences such as finding healthy ways to cope with disappointment and making choices about personal aspects of our lives help us learn how to respond during emotional situations and make smart decisions.
Programs and interventions that help us build emotion-regulation skills and reduce impulsive decision making can support us during this dynamic window of growth and learning. Learning to recognize emotions and adapt emotional responses in a way that is appropriate to the situation can be an important step in promoting healthy decision making.
➢ As adolescents build their decision-making skills, supportive adults should provide them with opportunities for increasing agency in decisions that impact their lives. This increased agency can occur in the many contexts of adolescents’ lives—at home with family, in school, at extracurricular activities, and in the community.
➢ When provided with the relevant information and time to consider the options, young people have the ability to make rational, well-reasoned decisions about their well-being. Adults who support adolescents faced with particularly consequential decisions, such as social workers, attorneys, and health care providers, should ensure young people have the time and information necessary to weigh their options.
➢ The natural inclination to evaluate and learn during adolescence makes it an ideal time to engage young people as partners in policy and program development and evaluation. When done well, youth engagement provides adolescents with skills and opportunities that align with the unique developmental needs of this stage of life.